alb3600110
Cassone with painted front panel depicting the Conquest of Trebizond
![Cassone with painted front panel depicting the Conquest of Trebizond. Culture: Italian, Florence. Dimensions: H. 39-1/2 x W. 77 x D. 32-7/8 in. (100.3 x 195.6 x 83.5 cm); Painted surface 15 1/4 x 49 1/2 in. (38.7 x 125.7 cm). Maker: Attributed to workshop of Apollonio di Giovanni di Tomaso (Italian, Florence ca. 1416-1465 Florence); and workshop of Marco del Buono Giamberti (Italian, Florence 1402-1489 Florence). Date: after ca. 1461.
Purchased in 1913 from the Florentine dealer Stefano Bardini (1836-1922), this elaborate chest, or cassone, has long enjoyed status as one of the few fifteenth-century objects of its kind to survive intact and, moreover, to portray a contemporary historical event--the conquest of Trebizond, the last outpost of the Byzantine Empire, by Mehmed II in 1461 (for another example of a cassone panel depicting a contemporary historical event, see 07.120.1). This status has been called into question by a detailed, technical examination undertaken in 2008. It has now been demonstrated that so far from being intact, various parts of the chest are not integral and that, most importantly, the painted front may originate from another chest. This means that the purported provenance of the chest from Palazzo Strozzi, first asserted by Weisbach [see Ref. 1913], may have no bearing on the interpretation of the scene on the painted front. That the chest itself is connected with some member of the Strozzi family is clear from the emblems that appear on the end pieces, which are original to it: the Strozzi falcon or hawk perched on a caltrop (spiky metal devices that, when scattered on the ground, destabilize the enemy's horses) with a banderole inscribed ME[Z]ZE--perhaps indicating another Strozzi emblem, the half-moon crescent [see Ref. Nickel 1974]. The inside of the lid and the back of the cassone retain their original stenciled patterns simulating patterned fabric, and the top of the lid is embellished by a gessoed piece of cloth that is gilded and tooled to simulate a runner of cut velvet (this motif is worn, the paint having been almost entirely lost, so that the design is barely legible today).
The scene on the painted front is universally recognized as coming from the most active and prestigious workshop for the production of painted cassone in mid-fifteenth-century Florence: that shared by Apollonio di Giovanni and Marco del Buono. Its subject is neither biblical nor mythological, nor even based on a contemporary novella such as those by Boccaccio. Rather, it depicts an event that unfolds before two identifiable cities of the Byzantine Empire. Much work has been done identifying the places shown [see especially Refs. Paribeni 2001, Paribeni 2002, and Lurati 2005]. In the left background, clearly labeled on its walls, is Constantinople. An attempt has been made by the artist to suggest a number of the city's landmarks and distinguishing topographical features, some of which are also labeled. There is the Latin church of San Francesco; the monumental column of Justinian in the Augustaion and the Egyptian obelisk (evidently topped by a crescent) in the Hippodrome originally laid out by Emperor Septimus Severus in the third century AD and further embellished by Constantine; the Hagia Sofia; the nearby sixth-century church of Saint Irene; what must be intended either as the Blachernae Palace or its thirteenth-century annex, the Palace of Porphyrogenitus, which served as the imperial residence for the last Byzantine emperors (the fragmentary inscription may possibly have been intended as [PALAZZO] DEILO [IM]PER[AT]ORI); the Golden Horn--the city's fabled inlet that was protected by a chain that could be drawn across it--with western ships (carracks) moored next to the Genoese quarter of Pera, the walls of which are dominated by the great circular Galata tower, atop which the Genoese flag can be seen. Other boats in the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara may be either Greek dromons or Ottoman. Further back, on the European side of the Bosphorus, is the CHASTEL NVOVO (the "new fortress" of Rumeli Hisari built by Mehmed II in 1451-52 in preparation for the seige of Constantinople; its distinctive towers are still a landmark today). Across the Bosphorus is another walled city designated as LO SCUTARIO--Scutari, present-day Üsküdar (the name, Skutarion, derived from the leather shields of the Roman soldiers stationed there; it fell to the Ottomans almost a century before Constantinople). Then, dominating the hill on the right is the walled city of Trebizond (modern-day Trabzon). Located on the southern coast of the Black Sea, it became the seat of a separate Byzantine empire when it was conquered by Alexios Komenos in 1204--the year Constantinople fell to the crusaders--and was the last outpost of the Byzantine Empire following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453. It fell to the Ottomans in 1461, marking the final demise of Byzantium. Although hardly an accurate depiction, it seems clear that for his depiction of Constantinople the artist was supplied with descriptions and maps, such as the one included in Cristoforo Buondelmonti's Liber insularum Archipelagi of 1420 [see Ref. Pope-Hennessy and Christiansen 1980] as well as, possibly, drawings by that inveterate traveler Cyriac of Ancona and the reports of other visitors to the city [see Ref. Lurati 2005].
Before the walled city of Trebizond is depicted a battle. An encampment of tents is shown on the far right, in front of which the leader of one of the armies is seated on a triumphal chariot drawn by two white horses. He wears a turban, as do other members of his army, including the troops emerging behind Scutari, and he points his white baton towards a gesticulating, bearded figure who, dressed in blue, wears the sort of cylindrical hat splayed out at the top that was associated in Western Europe with the Byzantine Greeks [see Ref. Lurati 2005]; he rides a black steed and is plainly either reporting on the progress of the battle or taking orders. Prior to 1980 it was presumed that the figure on the chariot was Mehmed II [see Ref. Weisbach 1913] and that the battle depicted the Ottoman defeat of the Byzantines in 1461--hence the designation of the chest as the Trebizond Cassone. However, as has been pointed out by Paribeni [see Ref. 2001], Trebizond was taken by Mehmed II without a battle: it capitulated without bloodshed. Moreover, a close examination of the costumes reveals that it is the Ottomans who are being vanquished (for the costumes, see especially Refs. Paribeni 2001, Paribeni 2002, and Lurati 2005). Clearly shown among the captives and those in retreat are members of the Ottoman elite infantry, the Janissaries, wearing their distinctive white conical hats with the top folded over. Other conical hats are gold, some with a feathered decoration (for similar Turkish costumes, see Cesare Vecellio's Degli habiti antichi . . . , Venice, 1664, book 7, pp. 297-302). Their commander is almost certainly the turbaned figure to the left of the melee, dressed in gold, holding a scepter and mounted on a black horse. He is defended by Janissaries, one of whom turns around while pointing with his left hand. Scimitars are wielded by both armies, as are the distinctive recurved composite bows of Ottoman warfare. In front of the triumphal chariot five captives, two of whom kneel, are being presented to the victorious army commanders. The characterization of the two armies should have been enough to refute the common identification of the figure on the triumphal chariot as Mehmed II. And, in fact, a careful examination with the aid of infrared light in 1980 revealed an inscription identifying him as TAN[B]VRLANA--Tamerlane, or Timur (1336-1405), the celebrated Mongol emperor and commander who defeated the Ottomans under Bayezid I at Ankara in 1402 (Bayezid was taken prisoner). The battle, then, would seem to be Tamerlane's victory over Bayezid at Ankara, but anachronistically shown against the backdrop of Trebizond. As remarked by Gombrich [see Ref. 1955], "it cannot have been the intention of the painter simply to represent a Greek disaster." And, indeed, the setting of a battle that took place in 1402 in front of a city that fell to the Ottomans in 1461 signals an emblematic intent.
In the minds of Europeans, Tamerlane's victories assured him a place among the "worthies". As such, his image was included in a fresco cycle of famous men commissioned about 1432 by Cardinal Giordano Orsini for his palace in Rome. A number of interpretations have been suggested to explain the apparent anachronisms (see the thorough summary in Ref. Krohn 2008). One would have it that the figure is not actually Tamerlane but the Turkmen rival of the Ottomans, Uzun Hasan (1423-1478), who was known in his time as a second Tamerlane [see Ref. Paribeni 2001 and Baskins, as reported in Ref. Krohn 2008]. Uzun Hasan made a pact with Mehmed II not to aid the Byzantine forces and thus to assist the Ottoman conquest of Trebizond. How this relates to the actual battle scene depicted remains problematic, but it may be worth noting that the Venetians sought Uzun Hasan as an ally against the Ottomans. What cannot be doubted is the intention to conflate historical events, using the past as a template for the future by reminding viewers that the Ottomans--now a threat to Europe--were not invincible. Paribeni [see Ref. 2001] has indicated a pair of cassoni panels commissioned from the workshop of Apollonio, apparently in 1461, that illustrate the triumph of the Greeks over Xerxes' invading Persian army in 480-79 BC. Given the date of the commission, there would appear to be a reference to the conquest of Trebizond, the collapse of the Byzantine Empire, and a hoped for reversal. At the Council of Mantua in 1459, Pius II promoted a crusade against the Turks. An army was assembled in Ancona in 1464, but dispersed when Pius died there on August 15. There were, of course, also mercantile interests, and Paribeni [see Ref. 2001] has pointed out that in December 1460 an accord established a Florentine commercial presence in Trebizond. The presence on the MMA cassone of the two cities of Constantinople and Trebizond would thus seem to transform Tamerlane's victory at Ankara in 1402 into an emblematic prognosis for the defeat of the Ottoman conquerors of Trebizond.
As noted above, the painted front may have belonged to another chest so that the attempts to link it with the Strozzi remain speculative. Moreover, it has not been proven that the chest itself came from the Strozzi palace, though it contains Strozzi emblems. Several Strozzi marriages have been suggested as appropriate moments for the commission: Caterina Strozzi, who married Jacopo degli Spini in 1462 [see Ref. Nickel 1974]; the brother of Vanni di Francesco Strozzi, who traveled to Constantinople and Trebizond in 1462 and who commissioned a cassone from Apollonio for the marriage [see Ref. Paribeni 2001]; Strozza di Messer Marcello degli Strozzi, who married in 1459; Benedetto di Marco degli Strozzi, who married in 1462 [Baskins, reported in Ref. Krohn 2008]; and finally, most prominent of all, the wealthy banker Filippo Strozzi--the builder of Palazzo Strozzi--who married Fiammetta degli Adimari in 1466 [Beatrice Paolozzi-Strozzi, in Ref. Krohn 2008].](/photos/prev/YWVkODMyMA/album_alb3600110.webp)
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Titre:
Cassone with painted front panel depicting the Conquest of Trebizond
Légende:
Traduction automatique: Cassone avec façade peinte représentant la Conquête de Trébizonde. Culture : italien, Florence. Dimensions : H. 39-1/2 x 77 x D. 32-7/8 in. (100,3 x 195,6 x 83,5 cm) ; Surface peinte 15 1/4 x 49 1/2 in. (38,7 x 125,7 cm). Bouilloire : attribuée à l'atelier d'Apollonio di Giovanni di Tomaso (Italien, Florence ca. Florence 1416-1465) ; et atelier de Marco del Buono Giamberti (italien, Florence 1402-1489 Florence). Date : après env. 1461. Acheté en 1913 auprès du marchand florentin Stefano Bardini (1836-1922), ce coffre élaboré, ou cassone, a longtemps joui du statut de l'un des rares objets du XVe siècle de son genre à survivre intact et, de plus, à représenter un événement historique contemporain - la conquête de Trébizonde, le dernier avant-poste de l'Empire byzantin, par Mehmed II en 1461 (pour un autre exemple d'un panneau de casson représentant un événement historique contemporain, voir 07.120.1). Ce statut a été remis en cause par un examen technique approfondi réalisé en 2008. Il est aujourd'hui démontré que loin d'être intactes, certaines parties du coffre ne sont pas solidaires et que, surtout, la façade peinte peut provenir d'un autre poitrine. Cela signifie que la prétendue provenance du coffre du Palazzo Strozzi, d'abord affirmée par Weisbach [voir Réf. 1913], peut n'avoir aucune incidence sur l'interprétation de la scène sur la façade peinte. Que le coffre lui-même soit lié à un membre de la famille Strozzi ressort clairement des emblèmes qui apparaissent sur les embouts, qui lui sont propres : le faucon ou l'épervier Strozzi perché sur un caltrop (dispositifs métalliques pointus qui, lorsqu'ils sont dispersés sur le sol, déstabiliser les chevaux ennemis) avec une banderole inscrite ME[Z]ZE--indiquant peut-être un autre emblème Strozzi, le croissant en demi-lune [voir Réf. Nickel 1974]. L'intérieur du couvercle et le dos de la cassone conservent leurs motifs originaux au pochoir simulant un tissu à motifs, et le haut du couvercle est orné d'un morceau de tissu gesso doré et usiné pour simuler un chemin de velours coupé (ce motif est usé, la peinture ayant été presque entièrement perdue, de sorte que le dessin est à peine lisible aujourd'hui). La scène de la façade peinte est universellement reconnue comme provenant de l'atelier le plus actif et le plus prestigieux pour la production de cassone peint à Florence au milieu du XVe siècle : celui partagé par Apollonio di Giovanni et Marco del Buono. Son sujet n'est ni biblique ni mythologique, ni même inspiré d'une nouvelle contemporaine comme celles de Boccace. Il dépeint plutôt un événement qui se déroule devant deux villes identifiables de l'Empire byzantin. Beaucoup de travail a été fait pour identifier les lieux indiqués [voir en particulier les réf. Paribeni 2001, Paribeni 2002 et Lurati 2005]. Dans l'arrière-plan gauche, clairement étiqueté sur ses murs, se trouve Constantinople. L'artiste a tenté de suggérer un certain nombre de points de repère de la ville et de caractéristiques topographiques distinctives, dont certaines sont également étiquetées. Il y a l'église latine de San Francesco ; la colonne monumentale de Justinien dans l'Augustaion et l'obélisque égyptien (évidemment surmonté d'un croissant) dans l'Hippodrome initialement aménagé par l'empereur Septime Sévère au troisième siècle après JC et embelli par Constantin ; la basilique Sainte-Sophie ; l'église voisine de Saint Irene du VIe siècle; ce qui doit être destiné soit au palais des Blachernes, soit à son annexe du XIIIe siècle, le palais de Porphyrogenitus, qui a servi de résidence impériale aux derniers empereurs byzantins (l'inscription fragmentaire peut avoir été conçue comme [PALAZZO] DEILO [IM]PER [AT]ORI ); la Corne d'Or - l'entrée légendaire de la ville qui était protégée par une chaîne qui pouvait être tirée à travers elle - avec des navires occidentaux (caraques) amarrés à côté du quartier génois de Pera, dont les murs sont dominés par la grande tour circulaire de Galata , au sommet duquel on aperçoit le drapeau génois. D'autres bateaux dans la Corne d'Or et la mer de Marmara peuvent être des dromons grecs ou ottomans. Plus en arrière, du côté européen du Bosphore, se trouve le CHASTEL NVOVO (la "nouvelle forteresse" de Rumeli Hisari construite par Mehmed II en 1451-52 en préparation du siège de Constantinople ; ses tours distinctives sont encore aujourd'hui un point de repère). De l'autre côté du Bosphore se trouve une autre ville fortifiée désignée sous le nom de LO SCUTARIO - Scutari, aujourd'hui Üsküdar (le nom, Skutarion, dérivé des boucliers en cuir des soldats romains qui y étaient stationnés ; il est tombé aux mains des Ottomans près d'un siècle avant Constantinople). Puis, dominant la colline sur la droite, se trouve la ville fortifiée de Trébizonde (l'actuelle Trabzon). Situé sur la côte sud de la mer Noire, il est devenu le siège d'un empire byzantin séparé lorsqu'il a été conquis par Alexios Komenos en 1204 - l'année où Constantinople est tombée aux mains des croisés - et a été le dernier avant-poste de l'Empire byzantin après la conquête de Constantinople par les Ottomans en 1453. Elle tomba aux mains des Ottomans en 1461, marquant la disparition définitive de Byzance. Bien qu'il ne s'agisse pas d'une représentation précise, il semble clair que pour sa représentation de Constantinople, l'artiste a reçu des descriptions et des cartes, comme celle incluse dans le Liber insularum Archipelagi de Cristoforo Buondelmonti de 1420 [voir Réf. Pope-Hennessy et Christiansen 1980] ainsi que, éventuellement, des dessins de ce voyageur invétéré Cyriaque d'Ancône et les récits d'autres visiteurs de la ville [voir Réf. Lurati 2005]. Devant la ville fortifiée de Trébizonde est représentée une bataille. Un campement de tentes est représenté à l'extrême droite, devant lequel le chef d'une des armées est assis sur un char triomphal tiré par deux chevaux blancs. Il porte un turban, comme les autres membres de son armée, y compris les troupes qui émergent derrière Scutari, et il pointe son bâton blanc vers un personnage barbu gesticulant qui, vêtu de bleu, porte l'espèce de chapeau cylindrique évasé au sommet qui était associé en Europe occidentale aux Grecs byzantins [voir Réf. Lurati 2005] ; il monte un destrier noir et rend manifestement compte de l'avancement de la bataille ou prend des ordres. Avant 1980, on supposait que le personnage sur le char était Mehmed II [voir Réf. Weisbach 1913] et que la bataille dépeint la défaite ottomane des Byzantins en 1461 - d'où la désignation du coffre comme Trebizond Cassone. Cependant, comme l'a souligné Paribeni [voir Réf. 2001], Trébizonde est prise par Mehmed II sans bataille : elle capitule sans effusion de sang. De plus, un examen attentif des costumes révèle que ce sont les Ottomans qui sont vaincus (pour les costumes, voir notamment les réf. Paribeni 2001, Paribeni 2002 et Lurati 2005). Parmi les captifs et ceux en retraite figurent clairement les membres de l'infanterie d'élite ottomane, les janissaires, portant leurs chapeaux coniques blancs distinctifs avec le haut replié. D'autres chapeaux coniques sont en or, certains décorés de plumes (pour des costumes turcs similaires, voir Degli habiti antichi de Cesare Vecellio..., Venise, 1664, livre 7, pp. 297-302). Leur commandant est presque certainement le personnage enturbanné à gauche de la mêlée, vêtu d'or, tenant un sceptre et monté sur un cheval noir. Il est défendu par des janissaires, dont l'un se retourne en pointant de la main gauche. Les cimeterres sont brandis par les deux armées, tout comme les arcs composites recourbés distinctifs de la guerre ottomane. Devant le char triomphal, cinq captifs, dont deux s'agenouillent, sont présentés aux chefs d'armée victorieux. La caractérisation des deux armées aurait dû suffire à réfuter l'identification commune de la figure sur le char triomphal comme Mehmed II. Et, en fait, un examen attentif à l'aide de la lumière infrarouge en 1980 a révélé une inscription l'identifiant comme TAN[B]VRLANA--Tamerlan, ou Timur (1336-1405), le célèbre empereur et commandant mongol qui a vaincu les Ottomans sous Bayezid I à Ankara en 1402 (Bayezid a été fait prisonnier). La bataille, alors, semblerait être la victoire de Tamerlan sur Bayezid à Ankara, mais montrée de manière anachronique dans le contexte de Trébizonde. Comme le remarque Gombrich [voir Réf. 1955], "cela ne peut pas avoir été l'intention du peintre simplement de représenter un désastre grec". Et, en effet, le décor d'une bataille qui eut lieu en 1402 devant une ville tombée aux mains des Ottomans en 1461 signale une intention emblématique. Dans l'esprit des Européens, les victoires de Tamerlan lui assuraient une place parmi les « dignes ». À ce titre, son image a été incluse dans un cycle de fresques d'hommes célèbres commandé vers 1432 par le cardinal Giordano Orsini pour son palais à Rome. Un certain nombre d'interprétations ont été proposées pour expliquer les anachronismes apparents (voir le résumé détaillé dans Ref. Krohn 2008). On dirait que le personnage n'est pas réellement Tamerlan mais le rival turkmène des Ottomans, Uzun Hasan (1423-1478), connu en son temps comme un second Tamerlan [voir Réf. Paribeni 2001 et Baskins, comme indiqué dans la réf. Krohn 2008]. Uzun Hasan a conclu un pacte avec Mehmed II pour ne pas aider les forces byzantines et ainsi aider la conquête ottomane de Trébizonde. Comment cela se rapporte à la scène de bataille réelle représentée reste problématique, mais il peut être intéressant de noter que les Vénitiens ont cherché Uzun Hasan comme allié contre les Ottomans. Ce qui ne fait aucun doute, c'est l'intention de confondre les événements historiques, en utilisant le passé comme modèle pour l'avenir en rappelant aux téléspectateurs que les Ottomans - désormais une menace pour l'Europe - n'étaient pas invincibles. Paribeni [voir Réf. 2001] a indiqué une paire de panneaux de cassoni commandés à l'atelier d'Apollonio, apparemment en 1461, qui illustrent le triomphe des Grecs sur l'invasion perse de Xerxès en 480-79 av. Compte tenu de la date de la commission, il semblerait y avoir une référence à la conquête de Trébizonde, à l'effondrement de l'Empire byzantin et à un renversement espéré. Au concile de Mantoue en 1459, Pie II promeut une croisade contre les Turcs. Une armée fut rassemblée à Ancône en 1464, mais dispersée lorsque Pie y mourut le 15 août. Il y avait, bien sûr, aussi des intérêts mercantiles, et Paribeni [voir Réf. 2001] a souligné qu'en décembre 1460 un accord établissait une présence commerciale florentine à Trébizonde. La présence sur la cassone MMA des deux villes de Constantinople et de Trébizonde semblerait ainsi transformer la victoire de Tamerlan à Ankara en 1402 en un pronostic emblématique de la défaite des conquérants ottomans de Trébizonde. Comme indiqué ci-dessus, la façade peinte peut avoir appartenu à un autre coffre, de sorte que les tentatives de le lier au Strozzi restent spéculatives. De plus, il n'a pas été prouvé que le coffre lui-même provienne du palais Strozzi, bien qu'il contienne des emblèmes Strozzi. Plusieurs mariages Strozzi ont été suggérés comme moments appropriés pour la commission : Caterina Strozzi, qui a épousé Jacopo degli Spini en 1462 [voir Réf. Nickel 1974] ; le frère de Vanni di Francesco Strozzi, qui voyagea à Constantinople et Trébizonde en 1462 et qui commanda un cassone à Apollonio pour le mariage [voir Réf. Paribéni 2001] ; Strozza di Messer Marcello degli Strozzi, marié en 1459; Benedetto di Marco degli Strozzi, marié en 1462 [Baskins, rapporté dans Réf. Krohn 2008] ; et enfin, le plus important de tous, le riche banquier Filippo Strozzi - le constructeur du Palazzo Strozzi - qui épousa Fiammetta degli Adimari en 1466 [Beatrice Paolozzi-Strozzi, in Ref. Krohn 2008].
Cassone with painted front panel depicting the Conquest of Trebizond. Culture: Italian, Florence. Dimensions: H. 39-1/2 x W. 77 x D. 32-7/8 in. (100.3 x 195.6 x 83.5 cm); Painted surface 15 1/4 x 49 1/2 in. (38.7 x 125.7 cm). Maker: Attributed to workshop of Apollonio di Giovanni di Tomaso (Italian, Florence ca. 1416-1465 Florence); and workshop of Marco del Buono Giamberti (Italian, Florence 1402-1489 Florence). Date: after ca. 1461.
Purchased in 1913 from the Florentine dealer Stefano Bardini (1836-1922), this elaborate chest, or cassone, has long enjoyed status as one of the few fifteenth-century objects of its kind to survive intact and, moreover, to portray a contemporary historical event--the conquest of Trebizond, the last outpost of the Byzantine Empire, by Mehmed II in 1461 (for another example of a cassone panel depicting a contemporary historical event, see 07.120.1). This status has been called into question by a detailed, technical examination undertaken in 2008. It has now been demonstrated that so far from being intact, various parts of the chest are not integral and that, most importantly, the painted front may originate from another chest. This means that the purported provenance of the chest from Palazzo Strozzi, first asserted by Weisbach [see Ref. 1913], may have no bearing on the interpretation of the scene on the painted front. That the chest itself is connected with some member of the Strozzi family is clear from the emblems that appear on the end pieces, which are original to it: the Strozzi falcon or hawk perched on a caltrop (spiky metal devices that, when scattered on the ground, destabilize the enemy's horses) with a banderole inscribed ME[Z]ZE--perhaps indicating another Strozzi emblem, the half-moon crescent [see Ref. Nickel 1974]. The inside of the lid and the back of the cassone retain their original stenciled patterns simulating patterned fabric, and the top of the lid is embellished by a gessoed piece of cloth that is gilded and tooled to simulate a runner of cut velvet (this motif is worn, the paint having been almost entirely lost, so that the design is barely legible today).
The scene on the painted front is universally recognized as coming from the most active and prestigious workshop for the production of painted cassone in mid-fifteenth-century Florence: that shared by Apollonio di Giovanni and Marco del Buono. Its subject is neither biblical nor mythological, nor even based on a contemporary novella such as those by Boccaccio. Rather, it depicts an event that unfolds before two identifiable cities of the Byzantine Empire. Much work has been done identifying the places shown [see especially Refs. Paribeni 2001, Paribeni 2002, and Lurati 2005]. In the left background, clearly labeled on its walls, is Constantinople. An attempt has been made by the artist to suggest a number of the city's landmarks and distinguishing topographical features, some of which are also labeled. There is the Latin church of San Francesco; the monumental column of Justinian in the Augustaion and the Egyptian obelisk (evidently topped by a crescent) in the Hippodrome originally laid out by Emperor Septimus Severus in the third century AD and further embellished by Constantine; the Hagia Sofia; the nearby sixth-century church of Saint Irene; what must be intended either as the Blachernae Palace or its thirteenth-century annex, the Palace of Porphyrogenitus, which served as the imperial residence for the last Byzantine emperors (the fragmentary inscription may possibly have been intended as [PALAZZO] DEILO [IM]PER[AT]ORI); the Golden Horn--the city's fabled inlet that was protected by a chain that could be drawn across it--with western ships (carracks) moored next to the Genoese quarter of Pera, the walls of which are dominated by the great circular Galata tower, atop which the Genoese flag can be seen. Other boats in the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara may be either Greek dromons or Ottoman. Further back, on the European side of the Bosphorus, is the CHASTEL NVOVO (the "new fortress" of Rumeli Hisari built by Mehmed II in 1451-52 in preparation for the seige of Constantinople; its distinctive towers are still a landmark today). Across the Bosphorus is another walled city designated as LO SCUTARIO--Scutari, present-day Üsküdar (the name, Skutarion, derived from the leather shields of the Roman soldiers stationed there; it fell to the Ottomans almost a century before Constantinople). Then, dominating the hill on the right is the walled city of Trebizond (modern-day Trabzon). Located on the southern coast of the Black Sea, it became the seat of a separate Byzantine empire when it was conquered by Alexios Komenos in 1204--the year Constantinople fell to the crusaders--and was the last outpost of the Byzantine Empire following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453. It fell to the Ottomans in 1461, marking the final demise of Byzantium. Although hardly an accurate depiction, it seems clear that for his depiction of Constantinople the artist was supplied with descriptions and maps, such as the one included in Cristoforo Buondelmonti's Liber insularum Archipelagi of 1420 [see Ref. Pope-Hennessy and Christiansen 1980] as well as, possibly, drawings by that inveterate traveler Cyriac of Ancona and the reports of other visitors to the city [see Ref. Lurati 2005].
Before the walled city of Trebizond is depicted a battle. An encampment of tents is shown on the far right, in front of which the leader of one of the armies is seated on a triumphal chariot drawn by two white horses. He wears a turban, as do other members of his army, including the troops emerging behind Scutari, and he points his white baton towards a gesticulating, bearded figure who, dressed in blue, wears the sort of cylindrical hat splayed out at the top that was associated in Western Europe with the Byzantine Greeks [see Ref. Lurati 2005]; he rides a black steed and is plainly either reporting on the progress of the battle or taking orders. Prior to 1980 it was presumed that the figure on the chariot was Mehmed II [see Ref. Weisbach 1913] and that the battle depicted the Ottoman defeat of the Byzantines in 1461--hence the designation of the chest as the Trebizond Cassone. However, as has been pointed out by Paribeni [see Ref. 2001], Trebizond was taken by Mehmed II without a battle: it capitulated without bloodshed. Moreover, a close examination of the costumes reveals that it is the Ottomans who are being vanquished (for the costumes, see especially Refs. Paribeni 2001, Paribeni 2002, and Lurati 2005). Clearly shown among the captives and those in retreat are members of the Ottoman elite infantry, the Janissaries, wearing their distinctive white conical hats with the top folded over. Other conical hats are gold, some with a feathered decoration (for similar Turkish costumes, see Cesare Vecellio's Degli habiti antichi . . . , Venice, 1664, book 7, pp. 297-302). Their commander is almost certainly the turbaned figure to the left of the melee, dressed in gold, holding a scepter and mounted on a black horse. He is defended by Janissaries, one of whom turns around while pointing with his left hand. Scimitars are wielded by both armies, as are the distinctive recurved composite bows of Ottoman warfare. In front of the triumphal chariot five captives, two of whom kneel, are being presented to the victorious army commanders. The characterization of the two armies should have been enough to refute the common identification of the figure on the triumphal chariot as Mehmed II. And, in fact, a careful examination with the aid of infrared light in 1980 revealed an inscription identifying him as TAN[B]VRLANA--Tamerlane, or Timur (1336-1405), the celebrated Mongol emperor and commander who defeated the Ottomans under Bayezid I at Ankara in 1402 (Bayezid was taken prisoner). The battle, then, would seem to be Tamerlane's victory over Bayezid at Ankara, but anachronistically shown against the backdrop of Trebizond. As remarked by Gombrich [see Ref. 1955], "it cannot have been the intention of the painter simply to represent a Greek disaster." And, indeed, the setting of a battle that took place in 1402 in front of a city that fell to the Ottomans in 1461 signals an emblematic intent.
In the minds of Europeans, Tamerlane's victories assured him a place among the "worthies". As such, his image was included in a fresco cycle of famous men commissioned about 1432 by Cardinal Giordano Orsini for his palace in Rome. A number of interpretations have been suggested to explain the apparent anachronisms (see the thorough summary in Ref. Krohn 2008). One would have it that the figure is not actually Tamerlane but the Turkmen rival of the Ottomans, Uzun Hasan (1423-1478), who was known in his time as a second Tamerlane [see Ref. Paribeni 2001 and Baskins, as reported in Ref. Krohn 2008]. Uzun Hasan made a pact with Mehmed II not to aid the Byzantine forces and thus to assist the Ottoman conquest of Trebizond. How this relates to the actual battle scene depicted remains problematic, but it may be worth noting that the Venetians sought Uzun Hasan as an ally against the Ottomans. What cannot be doubted is the intention to conflate historical events, using the past as a template for the future by reminding viewers that the Ottomans--now a threat to Europe--were not invincible. Paribeni [see Ref. 2001] has indicated a pair of cassoni panels commissioned from the workshop of Apollonio, apparently in 1461, that illustrate the triumph of the Greeks over Xerxes' invading Persian army in 480-79 BC. Given the date of the commission, there would appear to be a reference to the conquest of Trebizond, the collapse of the Byzantine Empire, and a hoped for reversal. At the Council of Mantua in 1459, Pius II promoted a crusade against the Turks. An army was assembled in Ancona in 1464, but dispersed when Pius died there on August 15. There were, of course, also mercantile interests, and Paribeni [see Ref. 2001] has pointed out that in December 1460 an accord established a Florentine commercial presence in Trebizond. The presence on the MMA cassone of the two cities of Constantinople and Trebizond would thus seem to transform Tamerlane's victory at Ankara in 1402 into an emblematic prognosis for the defeat of the Ottoman conquerors of Trebizond.
As noted above, the painted front may have belonged to another chest so that the attempts to link it with the Strozzi remain speculative. Moreover, it has not been proven that the chest itself came from the Strozzi palace, though it contains Strozzi emblems. Several Strozzi marriages have been suggested as appropriate moments for the commission: Caterina Strozzi, who married Jacopo degli Spini in 1462 [see Ref. Nickel 1974]; the brother of Vanni di Francesco Strozzi, who traveled to Constantinople and Trebizond in 1462 and who commissioned a cassone from Apollonio for the marriage [see Ref. Paribeni 2001]; Strozza di Messer Marcello degli Strozzi, who married in 1459; Benedetto di Marco degli Strozzi, who married in 1462 [Baskins, reported in Ref. Krohn 2008]; and finally, most prominent of all, the wealthy banker Filippo Strozzi--the builder of Palazzo Strozzi--who married Fiammetta degli Adimari in 1466 [Beatrice Paolozzi-Strozzi, in Ref. Krohn 2008].
Technique/matériel:
Poplar wood, linen, polychromed and gilded gesso with panel painted in tempera and gold
Musée:
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA
Fabricant:
Attributed to workshop of Apollonio di Giovanni di Tomaso (Italian, Florence ca. 1416-1465 Florence) • and workshop of Marco del Buono Giamberti (Italian, Florence 1402-1489 Florence)
Crédit:
Album / Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY
Autorisations:
Modèle: Non - Propriété: Non
Questions sur les droits?
Questions sur les droits?
Taille de l'image:
4245 x 2891 px | 35.1 MB
Taille d'impression:
35.9 x 24.5 cm | 14.2 x 9.6 in (300 dpi)
Mots clés:
